Step-by-Step Guide: How to Install Hardwood Floors

Introduction

Hardwood floors are a popular choice for homeowners due to their timeless beauty, durability, and ability to add value to a property. Whether you’re looking to enhance the aesthetics of your home or replace worn-out flooring, installing hardwood floors can be a rewarding project. However, it can also be a complex process that requires proper planning, preparation, and execution.

In this comprehensive guide, we will walk you through the step-by-step process of installing hardwood floors in your home. From preparing for installation to the final touches, you’ll learn everything you need to know to achieve professional-looking results. So, if you’re ready to embark on this exciting home improvement journey, let’s dive in!

1. Preparing for Installation

1. Preparing for Installation

When it comes to installing hardwood floors, proper preparation is crucial to ensure a successful and long-lasting result. Before diving into the installation process, taking the time to prepare adequately will save you from unnecessary headaches down the line. In this section, we will discuss the essential steps involved in preparing for the installation of hardwood floors.

Importance of Installation Preparation

Installing hardwood floors is a significant investment and can greatly enhance the beauty and value of your home. However, without proper preparation, even the highest quality flooring materials can fail to meet your expectations. By dedicating time to preparation, you’ll not only ensure a smooth installation process but also increase the longevity and durability of your hardwood floors.

Gathering Flooring Materials

Before embarking on the installation journey, it’s important to gather all the necessary materials. This includes the hardwood flooring itself, underlayment, adhesive, nails, and any additional accessories or tools required for the installation. Make sure to calculate the exact amount of flooring material needed, accounting for any wastage or cutting errors.

Consider the type of hardwood flooring that best suits your needs, such as solid hardwood or engineered hardwood. Each type has its own advantages and considerations. Solid hardwood provides a timeless appeal and can be refinished multiple times, while engineered hardwood offers enhanced dimensional stability, making it suitable for areas with fluctuating humidity levels.

Preparing the Subfloor

The subfloor plays a vital role in the overall performance and longevity of your hardwood floors. It must be clean, level, and free from any moisture or damage. Inspect the subfloor thoroughly, checking for any signs of mold, mildew, or rot. If you notice any issues, address them before proceeding with the installation.

Additionally, ensure that the subfloor meets the manufacturer’s recommended guidelines for moisture content. Excessive moisture can lead to cupping, warping, and other problems with your hardwood floors. Use a moisture meter to measure the subfloor’s moisture levels and make any necessary adjustments before installation.

Acclimating the Hardwood Flooring

Wood is a natural material that expands and contracts based on humidity levels. To avoid issues such as buckling or gaps in your hardwood floors, it’s crucial to acclimate the flooring before installation. Acclimation involves allowing the wood to adjust to the temperature and humidity conditions of the installation environment.

To acclimate the hardwood flooring, place the unopened packages or bundles in the room where they will be installed. Keep them stacked at least four inches above the ground and leave them for a recommended period (usually around 48-72 hours). This allows the wood to reach an equilibrium with the ambient conditions, ensuring a more stable installation.

By following these essential steps of preparation, you’ll set the stage for a successful hardwood floor installation. Taking the time to gather the necessary materials, properly prepare the subfloor, and acclimate the hardwood flooring will ultimately contribute to the beauty and longevity of your finished floors.

In the next section, we will discuss the importance of gathering the necessary tools and materials for the installation process. Stay tuned!

Note: In the actual blog post, each heading should have more in-depth information and valuable insights. The provided content is just an example and needs to be expanded further.

2. Acclimating the Hardwood

2. Acclimating the Hardwood

Properly acclimating hardwood flooring is a crucial step in the installation process. Acclimation refers to allowing the hardwood to adjust to the temperature and humidity levels of its new environment before installation. By doing so, you can minimize the risk of future issues such as buckling, warping, or gaps between the planks.

Why is Acclimation Important?

Hardwood is a natural material that reacts to changes in moisture content. If installed without acclimation, it may absorb or release moisture after installation, leading to problems. Acclimation helps the wood reach an equilibrium with the surrounding environment, ensuring a stable and long-lasting installation.

How to Acclimate Hardwood Flooring?

1. Timing: Manufacturers typically recommend acclimating hardwood flooring for a specific duration, which can range from a few days to a couple of weeks. Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines to determine the appropriate time for acclimation.

2. Storage: Unbox the hardwood flooring and stack the planks in the room where they will be installed. Ensure the stacks are off the ground and have proper airflow around them. This allows the wood to adjust to the temperature and humidity conditions in the space.

3. Monitoring Humidity Levels: During the acclimation period, it is essential to monitor the humidity levels in the room using a hygrometer. Aim for a relative humidity (RH) range of 35% to 55%. If necessary, use dehumidifiers or humidifiers to maintain optimal conditions.

4. Subfloor Conditions: Before acclimating the hardwood, ensure that the subfloor is clean, dry, and within the acceptable moisture range specified by the manufacturer. Any excess moisture in the subfloor can affect the hardwood’s performance.

5. Environmental Considerations: Take into account the climate and season during installation. For example, in humid regions, it may be necessary to run air conditioning or dehumidifiers to maintain suitable humidity levels. In areas with radiant heating, ensure the system is running at least one week before acclimation and throughout the installation.

The Benefits of Acclimation

Properly acclimating hardwood flooring offers several benefits:

1. Prevents Issues: Acclimation helps minimize problems such as buckling, warping, or gaps in the floorboards by allowing the wood to adjust to its surroundings.

2. Longevity: By ensuring the hardwood is acclimated, you can provide a stable environment for the flooring, enhancing its durability and lifespan.

3. Better Aesthetics: Acclimated hardwood is less likely to shrink or expand after installation, resulting in a more visually appealing and uniform appearance.

4. Saves Time and Money: Investing time in acclimation can save you from costly repairs or replacements down the line.

Remember, each hardwood flooring type and manufacturer may have specific acclimation requirements. Always refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for the best results.

Acclimating your hardwood flooring sets the stage for a successful installation. Taking the time to allow the wood to adapt to its new environment ensures a beautiful, long-lasting floor that will continue to impress for years to come.

3. Gathering Necessary Tools and Materials

When it comes to installing hardwood floors, having the right tools and materials is essential for a successful project. In this section, we will discuss the necessary tools and materials you need to gather before starting your installation.

Installation Tools

To ensure a smooth and efficient installation process, you will need a set of specific tools. Here are some of the key tools you should have on hand:

1. Measuring Tape: Accurate measurements are crucial when installing hardwood floors. A good quality measuring tape will help you determine the dimensions of the room and calculate the amount of flooring needed.

2. Level: Before laying the hardwood, you must ensure that the subfloor is level. A level tool will help you identify any uneven spots and make the necessary adjustments.

3. Saw: Whether it’s a circular saw or a miter saw, having a reliable cutting tool is essential. You will need it to cut the hardwood planks to fit around edges, corners, and obstacles.

4. Nail Gun: While it is possible to install hardwood floors using nails and a hammer, a nail gun significantly speeds up the process. It provides better control and reduces the risk of damaging the floorboards.

5. Chisel: A chisel will come in handy when it comes to trimming or adjusting individual pieces of hardwood. It allows you to make precise cuts and create a seamless look.

6. Flooring Installation Kit: This kit typically includes a tapping block, pull bar, and spacers. These tools help you securely lock the planks together and maintain the proper spacing during installation.

Materials

In addition to the tools, you will also need the following materials:

1. Hardwood Flooring: Choose the type of hardwood that suits your style and budget. Consider factors such as durability, species, and finish options. Make sure to purchase enough flooring to cover the entire area, accounting for waste and extra planks for future repairs.

2. Underlayment: Underlayment is a thin layer of material that goes between the subfloor and the hardwood planks. It provides added stability, insulation, and moisture protection. Depending on your specific requirements, you can choose from options like foam, felt, or cork underlayment.

3. Adhesive: If you’re installing engineered hardwood floors or using a glue-down method, you will need adhesive suitable for hardwood flooring. Make sure to select an adhesive that is compatible with your specific flooring type and follow the manufacturer’s instructions for application.

4. Nails: If you opt for the traditional nail-down method, you will need nails to secure the planks to the subfloor. Choose nails that are long enough to penetrate both the floorboards and the subfloor without causing any damage.

5. Moisture Barrier: In areas where moisture may be a concern, such as basements or bathrooms, it’s crucial to install a moisture barrier. This barrier helps prevent moisture from seeping into the hardwood and causing damage over time.

By gathering the necessary tools and materials beforehand, you’ll save time and ensure a smoother installation process. Having the right equipment at your disposal will make the task more efficient, allowing you to achieve professional-looking results.

4. Removing Existing Flooring

4. Removing Existing Flooring

When it comes to installing hardwood floors, one crucial step is removing the existing flooring. Properly preparing the subfloor ensures a smooth and durable installation. In this section, we will discuss the importance of removing the old flooring, conducting a subfloor inspection, and ensuring a clean surface for the new hardwood.

Why Removing Flooring is Important

Before installing hardwood floors, it’s essential to remove any existing flooring materials. Whether it’s carpet, vinyl, or laminate, removing the old floor allows for a fresh start and better adhesion of the new hardwood. Failure to remove the old flooring can lead to uneven surfaces, squeaky floors, and even premature damage to the new hardwood.

Conducting a Subfloor Inspection

Once the old flooring is removed, it’s crucial to inspect the subfloor for any issues that may affect the installation of the hardwood. Look for signs of moisture damage, rot, or unevenness in the subfloor. Addressing these issues before proceeding with the installation will prevent future problems and ensure the longevity of your hardwood floors.

If you come across any moisture-related problems, such as leaks or excessive dampness, it’s important to identify the source and fix it before continuing. Moisture can severely damage hardwood floors, causing swelling, warping, and mold growth.

Cleaning the Subfloor

After the subfloor inspection, it’s time to thoroughly clean the surface. Remove any debris, dirt, or adhesives left from the previous flooring. A clean and smooth subfloor provides an optimal base for the installation of hardwood floors, ensuring proper adhesion and reducing the risk of imperfections.

Depending on the type of adhesive used for the previous flooring, you may need to invest in specific cleaning products or tools to remove stubborn residue. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions and take necessary precautions to protect yourself during the cleaning process.

Remember, a clean subfloor not only improves the quality of your hardwood installation but also enhances its overall appearance. It eliminates any potential obstructions that could affect the smoothness and durability of your new floors.

In conclusion, removing existing flooring is a crucial step in installing hardwood floors. Conducting a thorough subfloor inspection and ensuring a clean surface sets the foundation for a successful installation. By taking the time to prepare the subfloor properly, you can avoid future complications and enjoy beautiful, long-lasting hardwood floors in your home.

Next up, we will discuss the importance of acclimating the hardwood before installation.

5. Installing the Underlayment

Installing the Underlayment

When it comes to installing hardwood floors, one crucial step that should never be overlooked is the installation of the underlayment. The underlayment serves as a protective layer between the subfloor and the hardwood flooring, providing several key benefits.

Firstly, the underlayment acts as a moisture barrier, preventing any moisture or water vapor from seeping into the hardwood planks. Moisture can be detrimental to hardwood floors, causing them to warp, buckle, or develop unsightly stains. By installing a proper underlayment, you create a barrier that safeguards your beautiful hardwood floors against potential moisture damage.

In addition to moisture protection, the underlayment also contributes to soundproofing your space. Hardwood floors have a tendency to transmit sound, which can result in an echoey or noisy environment. However, by incorporating an underlayment with sound-dampening properties, you can greatly reduce the noise transmission, creating a quieter and more peaceful living space.

Now that we understand the importance of the underlayment let’s dive into the installation process. Before you begin, make sure you have the necessary tools and materials on hand, including a utility knife, measuring tape, adhesive, and a roller for smooth application.

1. Start by thoroughly cleaning the subfloor to ensure it is free from any debris or dust. This will provide a clean and even surface for the underlayment.

2. Roll out the underlayment across the entire floor, making sure to overlap the edges by a few inches. Trim off any excess material using a utility knife.

3. Secure the underlayment to the subfloor by applying adhesive along the edges and seams. Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions for the specific type of underlayment you are using.

4. Once the adhesive has been applied, use a roller to firmly press down on the underlayment, ensuring good adhesion to the subfloor. This will help prevent any potential air pockets or loose areas.

5. If your underlayment has a built-in moisture barrier, ensure that the seams are properly sealed. This will provide an extra layer of protection against moisture.

By taking the time to install the underlayment correctly, you are setting a solid foundation for your hardwood floors. Not only does it protect against moisture damage, but it also helps to minimize noise transmission, creating a more comfortable and enjoyable living environment.

Remember, each type of underlayment may have specific installation instructions, so always refer to the manufacturer’s guidelines. With the underlayment securely in place, you’re now ready to move on to the exciting part – laying the hardwood flooring itself!

6. Laying the Hardwood Flooring

6. Laying the Hardwood Flooring

When it comes to installing hardwood floors, laying the flooring is a crucial step in achieving a beautiful and durable result. In this section, we will guide you through the process of laying hardwood flooring with valuable tips and insights.

Floor Layout

Before starting the installation, it’s essential to plan out the layout of your hardwood flooring. Take accurate measurements of the room and consider how you want the planks to be positioned. A well-thought-out floor layout can enhance the visual appeal of your space and minimize waste.

Staggering Planks

To achieve a professional-looking outcome, it’s important to stagger the planks during installation. This means that the end joints of adjacent rows should have a minimum distance between them. Staggering the planks adds structural stability to the floor and creates an aesthetically pleasing pattern.

Adhesive vs. Nailing

There are two common methods for attaching hardwood flooring: adhesive and nailing. The choice between the two depends on the type of hardwood you’re using and the specific requirements of your project.

• Adhesive: Using adhesive is a popular choice for engineered hardwood floors or when installing over concrete slabs. It provides a strong bond and helps reduce squeaks. Make sure to use a high-quality adhesive recommended by the manufacturer.
• Nailing: Traditional solid hardwood floors are often installed using nails or cleats. This method requires a pneumatic nail gun or a manual nailer. Nailing offers a secure attachment and allows for natural expansion and contraction of the wood.

Consider consulting with a flooring professional or following the manufacturer’s recommendations to determine the best method for your specific type of hardwood flooring.

It’s worth noting that some installations may require a combination of adhesive and nailing, particularly in high-moisture areas or on uneven subfloors. Always follow the guidelines provided by the manufacturer to ensure a successful installation.

Professional Tip:

When laying the hardwood flooring, it’s important to maintain a consistent gap between the flooring and walls to allow for natural expansion. Use spacers or shims to achieve the desired gap width, typically around ¼ inch.

By following these guidelines and techniques during the process of laying hardwood flooring, you’ll be able to create a stunning and long-lasting floor that adds warmth and elegance to your space.

Stay tuned for the next section, where we will dive into cutting and fitting the last pieces of hardwood flooring.

Note: The information provided in this section is meant to serve as a general guide. Always refer to the specific instructions provided by the manufacturer of your hardwood flooring for the best results.

7. Cutting and Fitting the Last Pieces

Cutting and Fitting the Last Pieces

When it comes to installing hardwood floors, one of the final and most crucial steps is cutting and fitting the last pieces. This phase requires precision and attention to detail to ensure a seamless finish. In this section, we will explore the essential techniques and tools needed for cutting hardwood, fitting the pieces together, measuring accurately, and using saws effectively.

Cutting Hardwood: Precision is Key

To achieve a professional-looking result, cutting hardwood with accuracy is paramount. Before making any cuts, double-check your measurements to avoid any costly mistakes. Use a tape measure or a specialized flooring square to mark the planks precisely. Remember to account for any necessary expansion gaps or unique room features.

When it comes to actually cutting the hardwood, there are several tools you can use. A miter saw, also known as a chop saw, is a popular choice due to its ability to make clean, angled cuts. It’s ideal for cutting pieces to fit around corners or irregular shapes. For straight cuts, a circular saw or a table saw can be used with a guide or fence to ensure straight lines.

Fitting Pieces Together: Ensuring a Seamless Appearance

Achieving a tight fit between the hardwood planks is essential for a professional-looking finish. As you approach the last pieces, some adjustments may be necessary to ensure everything fits snugly. Start by dry-fitting the plank before making any permanent cuts or modifications.

You may encounter situations where the last piece needs to be trimmed to fit into smaller spaces or around obstacles such as pipes or door frames. In such cases, carefully measure the space that needs to be filled and transfer those measurements onto the plank. Use a coping saw or a jigsaw to cut along the marked line, ensuring a precise fit.

Measuring: Accuracy is Everything

Accurate measurements are the foundation of a successful flooring installation. Take your time to measure each space meticulously, especially when dealing with irregular or non-square rooms. Remember to account for any necessary expansion gaps or transitions to other flooring materials.

When measuring, use a high-quality tape measure and take multiple measurements to ensure consistency. Measure from wall to wall rather than relying on existing planks, as they may not provide an entirely straight edge.

Sawing: Choosing the Right Tools

Selecting the right saw for the job can make a significant difference in the quality of your cuts. A circular saw is ideal for long, straight cuts, while a jigsaw allows for more intricate and curved cuts. Additionally, a coping saw can be used for detailed trimming or cutting inside corners.

Ensure that you have a sharp blade installed in your saw to achieve clean and precise cuts. Dull blades can cause splintering or tear-outs, compromising the appearance of your flooring.

Remember to prioritize safety while using saws. Wear protective goggles and gloves, and follow all manufacturer’s instructions for operating the tools.

Cutting and fitting the last pieces of hardwood flooring requires meticulous attention to detail and the use of proper tools. By following these guidelines and taking your time, you can achieve a flawless finish that will enhance the beauty and value of your home.

8. Sanding and Finishing

8. Sanding and Finishing

Once you have successfully installed the hardwood flooring, the next crucial step is sanding and finishing. This process not only enhances the overall appearance of the floor but also helps protect it from wear and tear over time. In this section, we will delve into the sanding process, floor finishing options, as well as sealing and staining techniques to achieve a stunning and long-lasting result.

Sanding Process

Sanding plays a vital role in achieving a smooth and even surface for your hardwood floors. It helps to remove any imperfections, scratches, or unevenness caused during installation. Before starting the sanding process, ensure that the floor is clean and free from debris.

Begin with a rough-grit sandpaper (typically 36 or 40 grit) to level out the floor and remove any stubborn stains or finishes. Gradually progress to finer grits (80, 120, and 220) to achieve a polished and refined finish. Remember to always sand along the grain of the wood to prevent any damage.

Pro Tip: Use a floor sander or hire a professional if you are unfamiliar with the sanding process. Improper sanding can lead to irreparable damage to your hardwood floors.

Floor Finishing Options

Once the sanding process is complete, it’s time to choose the right floor finishing option. There are several choices available, including polyurethane, varnish, oil-based finishes, and water-based finishes. Each has its unique characteristics and benefits.

1. Polyurethane: This popular choice provides a durable and long-lasting finish. It comes in both water-based and oil-based formulations, offering different levels of sheen (matte, satin, semi-gloss, or high gloss). Polyurethane finishes are resistant to scratches, spills, and UV damage.

2. Varnish: Varnish offers a traditional and glossy finish. It is known for its excellent durability and resistance to moisture and stains. Varnishes are available in different sheen levels, allowing you to achieve the desired look for your hardwood floors.

3. Oil-Based Finishes: These finishes penetrate deep into the wood, enhancing its natural beauty. Oil-based finishes provide a warm and rich appearance while offering good protection against daily wear. However, they require longer drying times and proper ventilation during application.

4. Water-Based Finishes: Water-based finishes have gained popularity due to their low odor and quick drying times. They offer excellent clarity and are available in various sheen levels. While they provide good protection, they may not be as durable as other options in high-traffic areas.

Sealing and Staining

Sealing your hardwood floors is essential to protect them from moisture and spills, ensuring their longevity. Before applying any sealant or stain, ensure that the floor is clean and completely dry after sanding.

1. Sealing: Apply a high-quality wood sealer evenly across the floor using a brush or roller. Sealing helps prevent moisture penetration and enhances the durability of the finish. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for drying times and the number of recommended coats.

2. Staining: If you desire a specific color or want to enhance the natural tones of the wood, staining is an excellent option. Choose a stain that complements your interior design. Before applying the stain, test it on a small, inconspicuous area to ensure it achieves the desired shade. Apply the stain evenly with a brush or rag, following the grain of the wood. Allow it to dry completely before proceeding with the final finishing coat.

Pro Tip: Always ventilate the area properly when applying sealants or stains, and follow the manufacturer’s instructions for application and drying times.

By following these sanding and finishing techniques, you can transform your hardwood floors into a stunning centerpiece for your home. Remember, proper preparation and attention to detail are key to achieving professional-looking results. So take your time, enjoy the process, and admire the beauty of your newly finished hardwood floors.

Stay tuned for the final section on “9. Finalizing the Installation” to complete your journey of installing hardwood floors.

Note: The information provided in this section is for general guidance only. It is always recommended to refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and seek professional advice when necessary.

9. Finalizing the Installation

9. Finalizing the Installation

After all the hard work of preparing, acclimating, and laying the hardwood flooring, it’s time to put the finishing touches on your installation. This final step ensures your hardwood floors not only look beautiful but also have a polished and professional appearance. In this section, we will discuss trim installation, baseboards, and transition strips – essential elements for completing your hardwood floor project.

Trim Installation: Adding a Touch of Elegance

Trim installation is the process of installing molding or trim pieces along the edges of your hardwood floors. These trim pieces serve both functional and aesthetic purposes. They provide a smooth transition between the floor and the wall while also protecting the edges from potential damage.

To install trim, measure each wall individually and cut the molding to fit precisely. Use a miter saw to achieve clean and accurate cuts. The chosen trim style can range from simple quarter round to more intricate crown molding, depending on your design preference. Once cut, attach the trim to the wall using nails or adhesive. Ensure that the trim is secure and aligns perfectly with the flooring.

Baseboards: Creating a Seamless Look

Baseboards are installed along the bottom of the walls and act as a decorative element that further enhances the appearance of your hardwood floors. They cover the expansion gap left during the installation process and provide a seamless transition between the floor and the wall.

When selecting baseboards, consider the overall style of your space. Choose a material that matches or complements your hardwood flooring. Common options include wood, MDF (medium-density fiberboard), or PVC (polyvinyl chloride). Measure each wall carefully and cut the baseboards accordingly, using a miter saw for precise angles. Attach the baseboards to the wall, ensuring they are level and align with the top edge of the trim.

Transition Strips: Seamlessly Connecting Different Flooring Surfaces

Transition strips are essential when your hardwood floors meet other types of flooring surfaces, such as carpet, tile, or vinyl. These strips create a smooth and safe transition between the different floor coverings, preventing any tripping hazards and ensuring a visually appealing result.

Choose a transition strip that complements both the hardwood flooring and the adjoining flooring material. There are various types available, including T-molding, reducer strips, and threshold strips. Measure the width of the doorway or the area where the two flooring surfaces meet, and cut the transition strip accordingly. Attach it securely using adhesive or screws, depending on the strip’s design.

By completing these final steps of trim installation, baseboard attachment, and transition strip placement, you will achieve a professional and polished finish to your hardwood floor installation. Not only will your floors look stunning, but they will also have the necessary protection and functionality for years to come.

Remember, attention to detail is key throughout this process. Take the time to measure accurately, make clean cuts, and ensure proper alignment. The end result will be a seamless and visually striking hardwood floor installation that adds warmth and elegance to your living space.
Installing hardwood floors can be a rewarding endeavor that enhances the beauty and value of your home. By following the step-by-step guide outlined in this blog post, you can ensure a successful installation process.

First, we discussed the importance of preparing for installation by assessing the condition of your subfloor and gathering the necessary tools and materials. Next, we highlighted the significance of acclimating the hardwood to the environment to prevent future problems.

We then walked you through the process of removing existing flooring, installing the underlayment, and laying the hardwood flooring itself. We emphasized the importance of proper measurements, adhesive application, and nailing techniques for a seamless and durable result.

Cutting and fitting the last pieces of hardwood requires precision and attention to detail. We provided tips on measuring and sawing techniques to achieve a professional finish. Sanding and finishing the hardwood floor were discussed, including sealing and staining options to protect and enhance the wood’s natural beauty.

Finally, we touched upon the final steps of the installation process, such as trim installation, baseboards, and transition strips, adding those finishing touches that complete the overall look.

By mastering the art of hardwood floor installation, you can transform any space into a stunning showcase. Remember to take your time, follow the guidelines, and seek professional help if needed.

Now that you have a comprehensive understanding of how to install hardwood floors, it’s time to bring your vision to life. Whether you’re upgrading your current home or embarking on a new construction project, the elegance and durability of hardwood floors are sure to make a lasting impression.

So don’t wait any longer – get started on your hardwood floor installation journey today and enjoy the timeless beauty and warmth it brings to your living space.